Achievements of Ancient Egypt

Achievements of Ancient Egypt Achievement of Ancient Egypt: The achievements of ancient Egypt can be traced back to the period between 3000 BC to 31 BC. From advances in mathematics, literature to symbolized achievements in medicine art and science, Egypt has made tremendous advances in shaping the world civilization (Winckelmann and Alex, 54). It was a leading Middle Eastern power in the period of 612 onwards. The emperor of Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great desired to be crowned pharaoh that indicated that civilization made strides even for longer periods (Smith and Roger, 33). Alexander the Greats general named Ptolemy became an independent ruler in 305BC after being crowned pharaoh, and his line of rule lasted to the famous queen, Cleopatra. She passed on in 31B.C.After this period of time, the Roman Empire were able to capture the Nile Valley, and it was ruled by foreigners for over a period of a thousand years (Smith and Roger, 16). These meant that the Egyptian culture had to change to states of unrecognizable features. Within this paper, there would be a detailed analysis of these achievements ranging from agriculture, art to science to technology. Agriculture Life in Egypt was centered on the river Nile. Farmers developed long irrigation methods which controlled the flow of water so as to ensure that crop yields were maintained throughout seasons whether dry or rainy. They divided the year into 12 months,30 days each month and five days of celebration (Smith and Roger, 21). They also made the solar calendar. The rich fertile valleys made it possible for projects such as Pyramids through the surpluses of crops. These surpluses were used to fund the refined lifestyle for the elite to help in diplomatic and trade relations and to enable wars of conquest were paid for (Winckelmann and Alex, 57). Writing and literature: The earliest hieroglyphic writing dated back to 3000 BC. Hieroglyphs represented a word, sound or a silent determinative and the symbol could serve different purposes in reference to a specific context (Wilkinson, 42). Though the majorities were written from right to left, the Egyptian ideograms were made up of hundreds of symbols that could be recited in rows or columns or either direction (Smith and Roger, 27). These ideograms were exclusively used in tombs and on stone monuments in Egypt. Another form of writing that existed and which was highly accepted by the scribes was the one called hieratic. It uses a cursive script or in other words a joined up writing. It was easy and quicker to use, in comparison to hieroglyphic (Shaw, 32). Towards the end of Ancient Egyptian civilization that is around 500 BC a new form of writing emerged called the Demotic. It was phonetic, semi-alphabetic script. Literature Most of the Egyptian hieroglyphic texts are theological or commemorative. Their literature is notably evident in public monuments, and walls of temples. Love poetry, proverbs, curses, myths and legends are all found in hieratic and later modified into demotic scripts (Shaw, 22). Stories have been discovered dating back to the middle Kingdom. One of the famous stories, is the story of sinuhe. Another tale is that of Wenamum; that offers an insight into Egypts declining phase (Wilkinson, 37). These stories were said to have style and impact which was based on stories from Reminiscent Arabian nights. The Egyptian stories proved that a lively literary tradition even in the sense of humour existed in Ancient Egypt. They may also be used to illustrate the theme of secular versus esoteric literature (Smith and Roger, 41). Religion was an important element of Egyptian literature. Hymns and prayers were written for purposes of praising gods. The Egyptians regarded the Pharaoh as a god, and their supreme god was called the Ra. He was the god of the light, and guardian of Egyptian lives. Art Egyptian art was a true reflection of their way of life. This was greatly proved in temple drawings, and tombs of prominent people. The intention of these drawings was to provide information which the deceased could use while transiting to another level of life (Shaw, 31). It provided instructions to these people, on how they ought to conduct themselves in the other life. Talk of mysteries. Furthermore, pictures of servants, slaves, and food were used to denote that the deceased would need them, just as they are needed in the physical life (Smith and Roger, 45). In addition, artists used paints (blue, red, orange and white) made from naturally occurring minerals. By the time of Ramses, the second, artists gained the capability of shading colors for purposes of achieving a layered effect. Sculptors were also important in ancient Egypt (Wilkinson, 41). Furthermore, Egyptians made statutes of animals, gods, kings, queens etc, for purposes of praise and worship. Pottery glazed with miner als was always used to make amulets, pendants, beads, jewelry. Architecture Architectural achievements in ancient Egypt were built of stone. This stones came from quarries that were notable of supplying granite, limestone, sandstone which were used in building the temples and tombs. This architect did plan how to build, and they did it without mortar so that the stones could fit precisely on one another (Smith and Roger, 47). On the other hand, pillars were used to offer short stone support. Ramps were used to give workers an enabling support to carry stones to the top of structures and allow artists decorate the tops of walls and pillars (Wilkinson, 37). It is said that as pharaoh was named tomb construction began, and the construction proceeded throughout their lifetime thereby stopping at their time of demise. Pyramids Pyramids were tombs which were used to bury the pharaohs. Egyptians believed that the souls of departed kings enabled kingdoms to remain in prosperity and peace and full of blessings (Wilkinson, 33). They mummified the Kings bodies to ensure that during such difficult times like during suppressions the gods could intervene on their behalf so that they defeat the enemy for peace to prevail (Magd, 39). Mathematics Egypt had some mathematical achievements which made it possible for their education to increase tremendously. By the year 2700 BC, the Egyptians had developed the base of 10 enumerations (Shaw, 27). By the year 1300 BC, Egyptians managed to develop two algebraic equations. The innovation in mathematics gave them a cutting edge from the rest of the world. In the year 1650 BC, geometry, cotangent analogue and algebraic equations, arithmetic series and geometrics series were developed (Magd, 27). Medicine and science Edwin Smith Papyrus, a medical tradition that traces as far as 3000BC was initiated in 1600 BC. Later ancient Egypt saw Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; and the Worlds earliest tumors being documented in 1500 BC (Wilkinson, 33). Also, ancient Egyptian doctors gained the skills and capability of stitching wounds, repairing broken bones, and amputating infected limbs. They managed to bandage body cuts by the use of raw meat, and linen, which were soaked in honey (Magd, 31). In science, the world looks at Egyptian astrology as the origin of all astronomical knowledge. Ancient civilization of Egypt devoted much time and energy to study the heavens (Winckelmann and Alex, 59). The information was put to practical use in agriculture, geodesy and the system of weights and measures and also to study correspondences between events in the heavens and event on earth. Conclusion: Although open problems have emerged over the sophistication of Egyptian technology and its adoption of various advances, it cannot go without mentioning that Egypt shaped the Worlds civilization. This is from the Napoleonic conquests, to the modern Egyptology. The world looks at Egypt as the mother of all civilization. Currently, the country is enjoying better tourism business because of this ancient works. From artistic drawings to mummifications in pyramids to literature and medicine, Egypt has attained recognition from the world all over. Works Cited: Smith, Miranda, and Roger Stuart. Ancient Egypt. London: Kingfisher, 2010. Print. Wilkinson, Toby A. H. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House, 2010.  Print.   Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, and Alex Potts. History of the Art of Antiquity. Los Angeles,  Calif.: Getty Research Institute, 2006. Print. Magd, Zeinab. Imagined Empires a History of Revolt in Egypt. Berkeley: U of California, 2013.  Print.

Analysis of Ryanair Essay

Ryanair established in 1985 carrying more than 5,000 passengers between its route Waterford Airport in Ireland to London Gatwick during its first year. The company expanded by 1989 had 350 employees, 14 aircraft and carrying more than 600,000 passengers a year. In 1997 there were dramatic changes in the European airline industry with deregulation of European Union air transportation allowed airlines to open new routes into Europe. The European Low fares association reported that low fares airlines are carrying more passengers than before with an increasing number of destinations in Europe set to increase from 38% to 53% in European travel (elfaa.com, 2011). Ryanair took advantage from the deregulation with routes from London Stansted to Stockholm, Oslo and Paris. By 2001 Ryanair launched its own travel website and within 3 months received 50,000 bookings (Ryanair.com, 2011). The report will focus on the low cost industry environment by identifying the opportunities and threats as well as five forces of the external environment. The report will also identify the strengths and weaknesses of Ryanair. Part 1: Low cost Airline industry The low cost airline industry has become the most profitable with all segments in the market with low prices and high load factors. This strategy has been challenged since the 1990s with the liberalization of services allowing new entrants to compete for business (Economist.com, 2011). The low cost airline industry operates all activities by reducing costs in order to gain strategic success and competitive advantage. This approach has a lot of opportunities as well as threats. Political Governments in the UK have the highest tax compared to Germany with a $1.3bn departure tax and Austria’s similar $119m duty tax (Independent.co.uk, 2011). The threat of passengers paying higher prices as a result of increased tax for their airline tickets can lower profits for airlines. This can affect low cost airlines such as Ryanair and Easyjet as the higher taxes cut profits for the company for example Easyjet stated they had lost  £21m of its  £153m in 2011 (IATA.com, 2011). Acts of terrorism can also be a major threat to the airline industry. Initiating further routes is an opportunity for low cost airlines to other destinations in Europe with its growing economy and additional 15 EU countries that joined in 2004 such as Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Latvia can offer new opportunities for new routes to increase the number of passengers(Delfmann, 2005). There has also been a threat with the plans to sell Stansted airport, the main location for low budget airlines after the Competition Commission to reduce its dominance in the market. This will bring greater competition to low cost airlines and benefit passengers with more low fare airlines from regional airports such as Gatwick and Stansted competing more (Telegraph.co.uk/travel, 2011). Economic The threat of rising oil prices caused global airlines to lose $16 billion in profits which did rebound in 2010 with higher traffic. The threat continues with oil prices averaging $110 a barrel and estimated to further increases in the industry’s fuel bill which will rise from $10 billion to $176 billion (Bangkokpost.com, 2011). This threat has also been warned by Willie Walsh, the chief executive of British Airways and Iberia who cautioned that European carriers have to bear the impact of the high fuel costs with some operators having to go out of business (Guardian.co.uk, 2011). The recession in 2008 resulted in travelers seeking cheaper fares and led to growth in sales for budget airlines. This opportunity during recession allows budget airlines to take advantage and of more travelers seeking low fares with budget airlines rather than more expensive airline tickets. With the higher oil prices, natural disasters in Japan, discontent in the Middle East, North Africa and can force competitors in the airline industry to increase prices and fuel surcharges which pose major threats to airlines profits and survival of airlines. Social The growth in demand for passengers seeking low cost airlines for cheaper fares is an opportunity for budget airlines. People are living a better standard of life with declining inequality of incomes made up mostly of middle class income people. People are also more well-travelled, experienced and seek new destinations with the growth of vacation property (Goeldner and Ritchie, 2009). This is an opportunity as budget airlines frequently service short haul destinations for short trips or weekend trips for leisure or business purposes offering more destinations and new experiences to people with low fares. Migration has also made commuting a factor with people seeking employment opportunities and education as a motive for travelling as well as the rising quality standards has shown to expect growth for low cost airlines (Gross and Schrà ¶der, 2007). There are significant opportunities for low cost airlines that can benefit from the demand of increasing passenger from various destinations and purposes. Many people also seeking new destinations is a good opportunity for budget airlines to increase passenger numbers and revenue by providing different destinations of regional airports. Technological The increasing popularity of information technology is an opportunity for low budget airlines as they don’t use travel agents to sell tickets and allows consumers to be informed about schedules, compare prices and itineraries as well as flights with other airlines (Pease etl al., 2007). The new ‘saddle seat’ which is designed to allow 23 inches of legroom compared to 30 inches on a normal seat space and shaped to sit at an angle increase the number of seat for an airline (Telegraph.co.uk/travel, 2011). The seats offer an opportunity for low budget airlines such as Ryanair and Easyjet to allow more storage space and more passengers in a plane which can increase revenues. The opportunities in technology allows airlines to take advantage of potential revenues with the internet offering direct marketing for customers and value added service by bringing offers to the customers directly. The opportunities for of the new seats can offer planes to fit more passengers and is a further potential a growth in revenue for budget airlines. Legal The airline industry has considerable regulations with issues concerning legislation and guidelines. For example low cost airlines have aggressive advertising campaigns to emphasize low fares which have become an issue with consumer protection legislation. Separate details of surcharges such as government tax, airport tax and fuel surcharge have to be included so that it does not consumers are not misinterpreted and misunderstood when buying a ticket. This is a threat to low cost airlines as it disregards the concept of low fares with all the taxes passed on by governments and aviation authorities. Low cost airlines can be substantially threatened with EU regulations and laws which can lower profits and damage the reputation of an airline with a negative image. Environmental Natural disasters such as the 2010 Iceland Volcano which caused 14,000 Ryanair flights cancelled. Costs of the 2010 Iceland disruption to the global airline industry soared to  £1.1bn according to estimates from the International Air Transport Association (Iata) (Guardian.co.uk, 2010). This threat to the airline industry faced by natural disasters such as the Iceland volcano can occur at any time and stop people from travelling costing airlines major disruptions with delays or cancellations. Emissions used by the airline industry have been increasingly growing rapidly over recent years, increasing 98% between 1990 and 2006 with predications of further increases to another 88% by 2050. This threat to the aviation industry enforcing airlines to pay for carbon dioxide and lower profits (Ftadviser.com, 2011). Porter’s five forces Porter points out the five forces which consist of bargaining power of suppliers, buyers, threat of potential new entrants and threat of substitutes to the industry. A company can adapt to the forces in order to increase chances of gaining sustainable competitive advantage and profitability. In understanding the strategic decisions a company has to make, it can be useful to look at the five forces of rivalry amongst the firm, substitution, new entry, the power of customers and the power of suppliers. Figure 1.1: Porters five forces Source: (Fouris and Oswald, 2006) Barriers of entry: to obtain aircrafts is extremely expensive and acquiring a basis at airports is also difficult (Gross and Schrà ¶der, 2007). With the success of Southwest airlines and deregulation and liberalization of the airline industry has allowed 40 budget airlines in the airline such as Easy Jet. This level is high as a result of these factors. Substitution- for the short haul flights, the substitute products include car, train and boat services. Travelling by train is clearly a substitute choice for travellers as it is high speed or travelling by car with the many motorway links available can have an impact. Technology can also be a substitute, for example business travellers may choose to conference skype calls over the internet. This level is moderate as flying is the main method of travelling long distances at a shorter time. Bargaining power of buyers: consumers can now purchase their own tickets from low cost airlines and can choose airlines with for higher level of quality, better service and lower price. Customers have the power to easily switch to another product that have lower prices with the ease of the internet (Hitt, et al, 2008). This popularity of comparison internet sites allows passengers to compare flight prices and choose the lowest cost airline of their choice. Therefore to survive with these intense factors airlines have to provide lowest fares to attract customers which is important for budget airlines and as a result the power of buyers is high as they consumers choose lowest fares causing risk of survival to an airline. Bargaining power of suppliers: Airlines rely heavily on the inputs for the company to survive which would be fuel, materials for the planes, services and manpower. Airlines either use Boeing or Airbus together with high maintenance fees, training staff. Additionally with the increase of cost for fuel to $50bn in 2011 resulted in travelers paying higher prices for tickets (Reuters.com, 2011). Therefore these inputs have high bargaining power over airlines as it can affect profits of an airline substantially. Competitor rivalry: may occur from price competition, product differentiation, advertising against other competitors is likely to affect the business (Bowhill, 2008). The intense rivalry occurs between low fares carriers are Ryanair, Easyjet and the carriers that provide ‘frills’ service with lower fares are British Midland Airways. Rivals also have to invest high capital investment and have a unique selling point to attract a large majority of customers and offer significant discounts and special offers. According the annual reports of Ryanair and Easy Jet, in 2010 Ryanair carried over 66 million passengers in comparison to Easy Jet carrying just 34 million. Therefore the airline’s low cost model delivers increased revenue and passenger growth as customers seek cheaper flights and benefit from price wars between airline fares. However budget airlines are still affected by rivalry with Ryanair and Easy Jet competing for customers flying with no frills airlines and the level of competitor rivalry is moderate. Conclusion Finally the analysis has demonstrated the attractiveness for the budget airline based on the ease of entry regulations and with the low expenditure costs lower than charter airlines that provide more service. The unstable environment has led to an increase in fuel costs with airlines paying heavily for their supply and in contrast the unpredictable economic environment has caused consumers to spend less and look for cheaper travel and prefer budget airlines such as Ryanair. Even though there is intense rivalry between airlines, budget airlines have an attractive strategy with more airlines using the low cost model to compete for passengers. Part 2: Internal analysis The internal factors of Ryanair’s concerns strengths and weaknesses to assess the extent to which the strategies for the airline in order to be successful, these summarizes the internal business environment and the capabilities (Johnson et al., 2002). The strengths of Ryanair are: The company has a successful low cost model benefitting from low expenses by using staff to clean the plane, passengers have to pay to print boarding pass reducing the need for staff at check in desks and take advantage of the internet to sell tickets. Ryanair’s low fares are aimed at encouraging demand especially with price sensitive leisure and business travellers that might choose alternative forms of transport method. Ryanair have set fares on the basis of demand on particular flights with higher fares on flights that have the highest demand for bookings booked nearer to the date of departure. Ryanairs competitors also do not operate on comparison sites and save commission or fees to other comparison websites. The company loses fewer bags and with 88% punctual flights compared to competitor’s ant explains why the company is a favorite airline for customers with over 73 million passengers in 2010 (Ryanair.com, Annual report 2010). Flights to secondary airports: the company offers point to point service on short haul flights to secondary and regional airports around the major hub centers and cities. The point to point routes rather than hub airports allow the company to provide direct nonstop flights and avoid the costs of providing services through connecting passengers, baggage transfers and transit passenger assistant costs. By choosing secondary locations allows convenience for a large majority of the population and is generally less crowded than in major airports. This has also resulted in on time flights, faster turnaround times, less terminal delays as well as more competitive airport access and handling costs or operating restrictions that can reduce expenses (Ryanair Annual Report, 2010). Low operating costs: Ryanair maintain low operating costs as a low budget airline company and aims to reduce costs in main areas which include: aircraft equipment, personnel productivity, customer service costs and airport access and handling costs. Weaknesses Ryanair have been negatively perceived as arrogant as the company does not take into consideration the competition by putting other low fares airlines out of business creating a bad image with negative media. Ryanair is viewed as not caring too much about customer needs or problems which reflect O’Leary’s opinion that customers pay low prices and get a good deal therefore should expect low standards. There have also been complaints for the extra payments for fees and taxes as well as paying higher prices for stowing luggage and onboard food and beverage. The company has also come across as having a negative reputation by having underpaid staff that are disciplined for any mistakes, work long hours and unhappy staff with staff (itfglobal.org, 2011). The company also charges  £5 for every purchase using bank card,  £40 for printing a boarding pass at the airport and  £100 for changing the name on the booking. Therefore customers often have to pay a lot more than they expected which makes Ryanair’s image appear dishonest (Ryanair.com, 2011). Porters value chain The generic strategies are concerned with the strategies of the company and at the micro level by exploring Porters model of the value chain. The value chain classifies the activities of the company and divided into primary and support activities used to identify the cost leadership strategy as illustrated in appendices b. The core competencies of Ryanair consist of maximizing revenues whilst providing a no frills low cost strategy and keeping logistics simple. This is maintained by Ryanair’s capability to lower operating costs such as aggressive online booking reducing the cost of staff and operate in secondary airports using Boeing 737-800. Through simple services and investing less on employees, Ryanair core competencies provide effective and efficient resource management. The primary activities involved in the inbound logistics of Ryanair consist of its 272 Boeing 737-800 planes that can carry 189 people and agreements to secondary airports. Ryanair have contract agreements with these large aircrafts with the ability to fly long hours and do not charge fuel surcharge (Ryanair.co.uk, 2010). Operations: Ryanair have lower unit costs as part of its operation and save costs through lower handling fees, landing fees in secondary airports and fast turnaround times with the capacity to utilize the aircraft at a shorter time. Ryanair operate in 1,110 routes and 1,400 flights a day from 44 bases. The efficiency of its operation supports the low cost strategy position with fast turnaround times, no meals on board and improved employee productivity (Ryanair.com, 2010). Financial analysis The strengths of Ryanair are quite clear. The company has been profitable with an increase in profits of 26% to â‚ ¬401m and operating profit increase by 28% to â‚ ¬516.2m in 2011. The figure below illustrates how the company increased passengers by 8% and revenue 16% by 2010. Figure 2.1: Summary Table of results (IFRS) in Euro Source: (Ryanair.com, 2011) Figure 2.2: Summary table for EasyJet Source: (Easyjet.com, 2011) As seen from the tables above it can be clear to differentiate the profit revenues. Profit after tax for Ryanair in 2010 was â‚ ¬138 million and for Easyjet was just  £121 million. Revenue for Easyjet in 2010 was  £2, 973 million in 2010 and  £2, 66 million in 2009 compared to Ryanair’s revenue in 2010  £18 million and  £16 million in 2009. According to Ryanair’s annual reports, revenues rose by 16% to â‚ ¬896.8m due to an 8% rise in traffic and a 5% increase in average fares in 2010. Ryanair has been able to gain a growth in revenue even during the financial recession which had a significant effect on other major airlines resulting in bankruptcy and closure. Due to its cost efficient methods through increased passenger traffic with its new routes and low prices Ryanair has been able to uphold its place as the number one low cost carrier. This difference also shows in Ryanair’s current ratio at 1.79 in 2010 compared to Easy jet only gaining 1.33. Conclusion From the internal analysis it is clear to see Ryanair’s low costs strategy means it is less affected than its competitors with its cost leadership. This has required the company to gain a large market share whereby it has purchased large quantities of planes and low cost operations has made shown that cost leadership is the only way to work for the future and globally. Ryanair has built a low cost culture however still needs to pay close attention to the external environmental factors including governmental policies and increased cost of fuel. The core cost savings mentioned has made the company highly successful with its short haul routes with standardized no frills services, higher seating density and its ticketless reservation system. Ryanair have succeeded by becoming a successful airline in Europe with the Southwest airline model and managed to grow its market segment of price sensitive customers through its no frills service. Bibliography Afuah, A. (2009) Strategic Innovation: New Game Strategies for Competitive Advantage. New York: Routledge. Beech, J. and Chadwick, S. (2006) The business of tourism management. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Bangkokpost.com (2011) Oil spike to push up airline losses. [Online]. Available at: http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/aviation/241328/oil-spike-likely-to-push- up-airline-losses. [Accessed on: 05 March 2011]. Betz, F. (2002) Executive Strategy: Strategic Management and Information Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Bowhill, B. (2008) Business Planning and Control: Integrating Accounting, Strategy, and People. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. Centreforinformation.com (2011) Jaw-dropping airline market capitalization. [Online]. Available at: http://www.centreforaviation.com/news/2011/03/10/jaw-dropping-airline-market-capitalisation-facts-part-3/page1 [Accessed on: 05 March 2011]. Cherunilam, F. (2007) International business: text and cases. 4th Ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall. Delfmann, W. (2005) Strategic management in the aviation industry. Ashgate: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Easyjet.com (2011) Annual Reports and Accounts. [Online]. 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(2007) Handbook of low cost airlines: strategies, business processes and market environment. Berlin: Hurbert and Co. Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D. and Hoskisson, R.E. (2009) Strategic management: competitiveness and globalization: concepts & cases. 8th Ed. Mason: Southwestern Cengage Learning. IATA.com (2011) Airline Industry 2011 Profit Outlook Slashed to $4 Billion. [Online]. Available at: http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/pages/2011-06-06-01.aspx. [Accessed on: 12 June 2011]. Independent.co.uk (2011) Chief of airline industry attacks ‘tax bandit’ UK. [Online]. Available at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/bus iness/news/chief-of-airline-industry-attacks-tax-bandit-uk-2293964.html. [Accessed on: 20 June 2011]. Independent.co.uk (2009) Ryanair it’s cheap not cheerful. [Online]. Available at:http://www.independent.co.uk/money/spend-save/consuming-issues-ryanair-its-cheap-not-cheerful-1781973.html. [Accessed on: 25 June 2011]. Itfglobal.org (2011) Campaigns. [Online]. 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How to Choose Visual Essay Mertons Theory Samples

How to Choose Visual Essay Mertons Theory Samples What is Actually Going on with Visual Essay Mertons Theory Samples Sociologists utilize a number of theoretical perspectives to produce sense of the planet. Merton rejected a lot of the notions that were the foundation for structural functionalism. Merton employs the term malintegration to spell out the condition of society. Agnew's strain is called GST or standard strain theory. For a family therapist to work, it's very important to them to opt for a theory they feel comfortable using. The strain theory requires a look at what causes someone to commit a crime. Subcultural theory also will help explain non-utilitarian crimes like vandalism and joy riding which strain theory can't really explain. Employing the case of the American dream, in order for each person to achieve it, they should have accessibility to numerous luxuries like education, which isn't always true. For instance, if you read silently, you're stimulating your visual sense. Consequently, the thought of environment as the important element that defines human behavior stays the only sound reason. Gradually, the thought that human behavior ought to be explained via the use of the scientific method started to replace aged superstitions. Much of social learning isn't immediate, so this procedure is especially vital in those situations. There's some thought ahead of imitation, and this consideration is known as mediational processes. Demographic controls have significant results but don't negate a number of psychosocial results. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with different persons in a procedure for communication. If You Read Nothing Else Today, Read This Report on Visual Essay Mertons Theory Samples Visual essays can be produced in an assortment of fashions and tools and frequently have a collection of images and panels (compositions of different images and text). The two of these visual learners will be a lot more likely to retain information should they see it. Both tools might be used in combination with Audacity to combine sounds and samples from different sources. Often times visual papers are finally represented in the shape of slides or videos, but they are also able to be in the shape of posters. Things You Won't Like About Visual Essay Mertons Theory Samples and Things You Will Individuals from a specific area deemed to get quite a few deviants or criminals gain that label. Children will have a lot of models with whom they identify. Society tells everyone they are a success based upon how much material wealth they've obtained. Merton's major concern was that societies, like the usa, do not offer the ability to realize cultural targets. The Little-Known Secrets to Visual Essay Mertons Theory Samples Subsequently, essay was defined in many different ways. A financial essay can begin with a thesis, or it may begin with a theme. A visual analysis essay is very different from a usual essay. Developing a portrait photo essay is a mix of art and journalism. The Visual learner should observe all study material. Students are requested to explain, comment on, or assess a subject of study in the shape of an essay. College students should get great grades and graduatethis is their culturally-valued targets. Some traits that might result in social disruption is going to be stigmatized. Stress, anger and frustration are typical emotions people feel and they can encourage someone to do something they need to not to be able to find relief or a remedy to their problem. In order to prevent unsettling society, an individual must know about what behaviors are marked as deviant. These behaviors have very little reaction from others and for that reason, have very little effect on somebody's self-concept. The growth of subcultures is explained in regard to the place of groups and individuals in the social structure. You have to decide which is the specific aspect about which you would like to talk. His strain theory begins with the overall assumption that societies provide both culturally-valued targets and culturally-valued ways. Thus, deviance may be the consequence of accepting one norm, but breaking another to be able to pursue the first.

The impact of innovation on companies - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3737 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Firms and businesses exist and battle to survive just as living beings within the countries or regions they operate, and just as living beings experience the need to change or create change due to their continuously altering environment, so to do business organizations. In order to stand the test of time and obtain a higher competitive advantage, a business must continue to remain relevant to its customers, it must continuously find ways to provide the relevant product or service for the ever changing consumer base and at the same time maintain an optimum profit margin. This form of artificial or better yet commercial evolution, can be said to be the core reason behind the use of technology in the business world, this is the drive for industrial innovation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The impact of innovation on companies" essay for you Create order In 1950 Joseph Alois Schumpeter, stated that; The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates.(p83) As businesses grow and expand beyond their place of origin, they tend to acquire more competitors in any industry they operate and in turn have to find ways to effectively stretch their core competencies in order to compete with their new rivals or develop new competencies, most of the time with the use of technology. The process of innovation is a highly complex series of steps which is somewhat disorderly, difficult to measure and requires a high level of technical knowledge (Kline and Rosenberg, 1986) and this clearly depicts there numerous dangers involved in the innovation process. Also one may ask, how will changing a product or service or the method of its production giv e a company a higher competitive advantage (Utterback and Suarez, 1991) when compared to its counterparts who have chosen to maintain the status-quo, besides why would any company want to change a formula that has worked for them over a long period of time. The concept of innovation has long been studied by numerous scholars with a of lot journals and articles written on it, but this paper will attempt to understand what innovation means to a business operating on a global front by offering case studies on three of the most innovative companies in the world and in that light find out how their innovation has impacted their operations and activities, and whether it has increased their competitive advantage in comparison with their less innovative competitors. What is Innovation? Since the dawn of time large companies or firms have existed for two major reasons, survival in the long run (Utterback and Suarez, 1991) and profit maximization in the short run through obtaining a high market share of their consumers. With the increasing effects of globalisation partnered with the continuously shrinking economic distance and the rapid technological changes occurring (Lall, 2001), companies now find themselves competing on a global scale. The increased scale of competition has created the need for companies to evolve in their activities and progressively grow beyond the status-quo and this is where the need for technology arises. In lay man terms, innovation in business can said to be a positive change in the methods of production or the creation of a whole new product. Mulgan and Albury (2003) define innovation as the successful creation and implementation of new processes, products, services and methods of delivery which result in significant improvements in out comes efficiency, effectiveness or quality (p3). The OECD define innovation as: Consisting of all those scientific, technical, commercial and financial steps necessary for the successful development and marketing of new or improved manufactured products, the commercial use of new or improved processes or equipment or the introduction of a new approach to a social service (1981, 15-16). Nord and Tucker define an innovation as a practice or technology which is being utilized for the first time by a firm or organisation, irrespective of whether it has been implemented by other firms (1987, cited in Klein and Sorra, 1996). In the words of Kline and Rosenberg, who coined the term commercial innovation in order to clearly acknowledge that the concept is been seen from a business angle (1986); The process of innovation must be viewed as a series of changes in a complete system not only of hardware, but of the complete market environment, production facilities and knowledge, and th e social contexts of the innovation organization (p275). Large firms have always found themselves at the forefront of technological breakthroughs and the diffusion of a newly acquired knowledge (Patel and Pavitt, 1992; Cantwell 1994; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Roberts 1995 a and b cited in Gerybadze and Reger, 1997). Most businesses create and run a research and development departments, which are charged with the task of exploring the possibilities of creating and utilizing new technology in their operations in order to either create a new product or a new method of production. Innovation is not only the creation of a new product or a change in the production process, put in the words of Kline and Rosenberg (1986); There is no single, simple dimensionality of innovation. There are, rather, many sorts of dimensions covering a variety of activities. We might think of innovation as a new product but it may also be; an improvement in instruments or methods of doing innovation, the substitution of a cheaper material, the re-organization of production, internal functions or distribution arrangements leading to increased efficiency, better support for a given product or lower cost (p279). Innovation may also be development of skill by a particular firm, through continuous learning and routine problem solving activities (Loasby, 1998) which will eventually become a benefit to that business. None the less, the most recognised forms of technological change in the business world are product innovation and process innovation (Dicken, 2007). Product innovation occurs as soon as company starts creating new commodities, for many organizations creating a new product is a central path by which they adapt or sometimes transform themselves in their changing environment (Woomack, Jones and Roos, 1990; Doherty, 1992; Brown and Eisenhardt, 1995; cited in Eisenhardt and Tabrizi, 1995), Dicken (2007), believes that once a business environment becomes highly competitive, the steady creation of new products will aid in maintaining a firms profit margin and in the long run maybe its survival (p93). Process innovation on the other hand involves developing new, efficient and cheaper means of production while still maintaining the required level of quality. The need for businesses to undergo a continuous process of innovation cannot be stressed enough and due to intense competition, along with fast changing markets and technologies, firms now tend to be more aware of this fact (Harvard Business Review, 1998). As businesses grow within certain regions, gather together and form clusters, there will tend to be an exchange of information among firms operating in different fields of the same industry or the similar fields, these businesses invest in research and development now, not only to create new ideas but to become efficient in the use of the free flowing information in their environment (Cohen Levinthal, 1989). Investment in innovative activities will rise as a result of the complex and varying processes involved for successful innovation (Kline Rosenberg, 1986), the process of studying an industrys environment while researching on new technology and efficient ways of its utilization can turn out to be a very tedious process. There has always been some sort uncertainty in innovation due to the risk involved of either creating a new product or utilizing a new form of technology in the production process, but following the countless amount of detailed research performed on different companies operating in different parts of the world by Michael Porter and Class van der LInde, it was revealed that the companies which were internationally competitive were not those with cheaper input or large scale, but those which were capable of continuous improvement and innovation (1995). Impact of Innovation on Companies Operating Globally: A Study of Apple Computer Inc. and Wal-Mart Stores Inc. The increasing use of technology by businesses can be clearly observed in todays with companies who arent even technology based developing ways to utilize new ideas in their activities or production process. Before the economic downturn, American companies dominated most industries with the most innovative firms but with the economys slow and gradual return, we can find that American companies are no longer the be all and end all in innovation (Businessweek, 2010). 2010 Ranking Company HQ Country Stock Returns 2006-2009 (in %) Revenue Growth 2006-2009 (in %) Margin Growth 2006-2009 (in %) 1 Apple U.S. 35 30 29 2 Google U.S. 10 31 2 3 Microsoft U.S. 3 10 -4 4 IBM U.S. 12 2 11 5 Toyota Japan -20 -11 NA 6 Amazon.com U.S. 51 29 6 7 LG Electronics South Korea 31 16 707 8 BYD China 99 42 -1 9 General Electric U.S. -22 -1 -25 10 Sony Japan -19 -5 NA *21 Wal-Mart Stores U.S. 7 6 -1 *Wal-Mart was does not fall under the 10 companies but is included for the sake of this paper Table 1: Data from Businessweek; 50 Most Innovative Companies, 2010. The table above shows the 10 most innovative firms for the year 2010 along with a 4year analysis of their revenue, stock and their operating margin, but the sake of this paper I am going to focus on Apple, Wal-Mart and Sony, then attempt to find out the impact of their innovation on the industry they operate in as well as themselves over time. Case Study on Apple Computer Inc. Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower Steve Jobs, Apple Computer Inc. CEO. Apple Computer Inc. is located in Silicon Valley and is a quintessential venture-capital-financed high-technology firm (Nonaka Kenney, 1991). As at 1977, the time of Apples conception, the PC industry was dominated by the IBM PC and Microsofts Windows Operating system. Apple was characterised by its idiosyncratic and go-alone strategy and was famous for not allowing its technology to be utilized by other PC makers (West, 2002). Apple placed itself firmly in the PC industry and showed its capacity for innovation by the 1984 release of the Macintosh Apple, which was the first ever mass-market PC with a graphic user interface (GUI) (West, 2005), at this time, what differentiated Apple from all other competition was the fact that they created their own software along with the hardware that ran it as well. Apple creators Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak did not believe the PC should only be a work tool, but should be fun as well and it was this thinking that led to the first successful use of the mouse to interact with the PC (Markides, 1997). In 1994 Apple was forced into licensing its products out to other companies due to high drops in revenue and this in turn led to a loss in their market share as these companies produced similar products at cheaper prices (West, 2002). Although being a highly innovative company, Apple faced numerous issues in the PC industry where it suffered a high level of losses and eventually had to relieve its then CEO John Sculley of his position and re-empoy Steve Jobs as CEO in July 1997 (West, 2005). Apple Inc. went through a massive makeover with the return of one of its founding fathers who came in with a series of highly innovative and profitable products, and eventually diversifying into other markets and altering Apples major product in the process. With the release of the iMac on August 15, 1998 Apple was able to put to rest so me its past failures. These failures included the first Apple Portable, which was bulky and awkward and the Newton, Apples first attempt to enter the PDA market. In 2001, after several years of development, Apple released Mac OS X, an operating system that targeted both consumers and professionals. Mac OS X was a complete redesign from Mac OS 9 and was able to harness the power of UNIX while offering a streamlined user experience with a simplified GUI (Graphical User Interface). The iMac line of personal computers paired with Mac OS X returned Apple to profitability and the release of the iPod portable digital audio player later that year was the icing on the cake. The phenomenal success of the iPod set the stage for future products, including the best-selling mobile device in history, the Apple iPhone, the MacBook line of portable computers, and the Apple iPad which was released on January 27th 2010. (Dougherty, 2010) Apple has experienced success in most recent product releases coupled with massive growth in sales and revenue as shown in 2007 when the sales of their Mac range shot up by 37% (Piero, 2010), while controlling only 7.4% of the American market share as at the fourth quarter of 2009 (Foreman, 2010). With the continuous release of new and exciting products along with their entry and unusual dominance of the mobile phone industry and their literal creation of the tablet PC market with the release of their iPad device, it is evident that Apple is a company that has achieved superiority through rapid and constant innovation and will continue to garner a reputation that is far out of proportion to its size or market share (West and Mace, 2007). Case Study on Wal-Mart Stores Inc.* Wal-Mart Stores Inc. is the brain child of Sam Walton which was made a reality in 1962 when the discount retailer was opened. Sam Walton operated only in small towns which allowed them run their operations on a small scale, in relation to their bigger and better resourced competitors. The expansion of Wal-Mart was a slow and gradual yet efficient process, the company grew at a pace which Sam Walton could easily manage and be actively present in most activities. Wal-Mart operated as low cost strategy which was hard to maintain due to the lack of a suitable working relationships with suppliers and distribution chain, suppliers saw Wal-Mart as a minor player in the retail industry and treated them as such. In order to minimize costs Wal-Mart utilized vertical integration by building their own warehouses and obtaining their own trucks for transportation, with this and the use of their Everyday Low Price Strategy (EDLP) which saved them a large amount of funds that would have been spent on advertising, Wal-Mart was on its way to obtaining market leadership. The 70s saw a change in Wal-Marts corporate nature as the company went public, in order to expand beyond its 30 stores and raised about $5million in the process. In less than 25 years, Wal-Mart had risen to become the largest American corporation in terms of sales. With over $374 billion in revenue, Wal-Mart had overshadowed all competition in its home market and is proposed to hit half a trillion dollars in revenue within the next decade (Upbin, 2004 cited in Hesterly, n.d). Wal-Marts success can be attributed to its low cost strategy and its intense use of technology in its operations. Technology investments in sophisticated inventory, management systems, state of the art distribution centres, and other aspects of logistics werent seen as very important areas of the retail industry. Wal-Mart had pioneered the use of technology in the retail industry and still possesses significant advantage over its compet itors. The use Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) to shorten distribution cycle, by providing a direct transfer of sales information directly from the discounters register to the suppliers computers. Wal-Mart was the leader in forging EDI links with suppliers with its Retail Link System which provided inventory information for over 3000 stores to about 3000 vendors (Standard and Poor, 1998 cited in Hesterly, n.d). In 2003, Wal-Mart once again showed its penance for technological initiative with its push for the use Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) by all suppliers, in order to track inventory more precisely than the traditional methods, although the use of the RFID was not widely accepted it was shown to save Wal-Mart up to $8 billion in costs. At the heart of Wal-Marts success remains its distribution and logistics system which had been born out of the need to service so many stores in small towns while maintaining low costs, as a result of this, Wal-Mart created and utilized t heir own distribution centres which used a cross-docking technique. In cross-docking, goods were delivered to distribution centres and often simply loaded from one dock to another or even from one truck to another without sitting in inventory, the cross-docking technique reduced Wal-Marts cost of sales by 3% in comparison to competitors who no matter how much they attempted could not perfectly replicate the technique. Wal-Mart, though operating in a service oriented industry laid their emphasis on innovation and continuous improvement, and this can be traced back to the old days when there were either no computers or they were not affordable, then Sam Walton would keep a ledger of measures on several variables for each store, the emergence and efficient utilization of information technology enabled Wal-Mart to extend its emphasis on information and measurement and transform this into success and immense global growth. *Case created by Dr. William Hesterley for the purpose of a class discussion Case Study on Sony Electronics Inc. Sony Electronics Inc. is a well-known electronic company formed in 1946 in the post-world war two era by Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita under the then name Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation (Kenan, n.d). From the outset, Sonys original management policies revolved around product innovation and the company strived to make consumer electronics which were compact in size and highly portable (Vila and Mitchell, 2007). After their 1950 release of Japans first tape recorder (Kenan, n.d) Masaru Ibuka travelled to the United States in order to market this invention, which was Sonys first major product (Chaudhuri, 2007) and relative success. Sony eventually became known for their innovative and consumer friendly products, in 1955 after they obtained the licence for the transistor for Western Electronics (Chaudhari, 2007) and went on to create Japans first transistor radio the TR-55 and a slew of other highly innovative products including the worlds first direct-view portable television set, the TV8-301 in 1960, along with the worlds tiniest all transistor television set in 1962, the worlds first blu-ray disc player in 2003, and in 2005 they were credited with building the worlds smallest video camera which also shot in high definition (Kenan, n.d), but the product that made Sony a household name and reckonable force in their industry was the Walkman. The Walkman was produced in 1979 and was a massive hit with consumers, the product was not the first of its kind, with tape recorders already existing long before its arrival but it was an advance in marketing, produced not for journalist professionals but for the average and common user as a the first portable music player (Hormby, 2006) paving the way for Apples iPod and Microsofts Zune. The Walkman created a cultural impact immediately becoming a highly sought after commodity by everyone irrespective of age or country (Du Gay, Hall, Janes, Mackay and Negus, 1997), in the words of Akio Morita; Thi s is the product that will satisfy those young people who want to listen to music all day. They would take it everywhere and wont have to care about record function. If we put a playback-only headphone stereo like this on the market itll be a hit February 1979, Sony Headquarters (Bellis, n.d). Beyond the culture defining era of the Walkman series, Sony continued to show its ability to bring dream into realities with the release of its Sony Discman or CD Walkman series, which utilized the already growing compact disc format. The Discman also included some series with radio and reception (Hassan, 2010). In recent years Sony has diversified into the mobile phone industry with its joint venture with Ericsson and also the gaming industry with its widely popular console the Playstation, which saw an increase in sales in 2010 (Mokey, 2010). From a company started with less than 1500 dollars (Kenan, n.d), Sony as at 2006 boasted of a worldwide sales figure of 63.9 billion dollars (Cahaud huri, 2007) and has now been at the forefront of technological breakthroughs for the past 64years while still remaining a highly profitable and reliable brand name in the consumer electronics industry and with their background based on constant product innovation and a continuous search for new technology, Sony Electronics Inc. will remain a highly regarded company for more years to come. Conclusion There have been numerous journals that have attempted to draw out the relationship between innovation and the performance of a firm or business (eg. Feeny and Rogers, 2001; Loof and Heshmati, 2001) and it can also be seen from these journals that innovative firms are among the most efficient in their industries and can also enter into other with little to no issues. A direct linkage can be seen between a firms performance and its level of utilized technology, Geroski (1994, p130) sums up that innovation can influence a firms performance in two ways: The first is of the notion that the creation of new products or processes of production will strengthen a firms competitive position in relation to its rivals. But the profits and growth will be short-lived and only last as long as the innovating firm can defend its position against rivals. The second view argues that the process of innovation alters a firm fundamentally by enhancing its internal capabilities, making it more flexible and adaptable to market pressures than non-innovating firms (cited in Neely and Hii, 1998). Innovation is the key to competitive advantage in a highly turbulent environment, and has direct consequences to a firms ability to compete due to the value it creates by developing new products or new methods of production (Neely Hii, 1998) and there is an obvious relationship between the intensity of competition and innovative activities (Bonanno and Haworth, 1998). Looking at Wal-Mart Stores Inc., Apple Computer Inc., and Sony Electronics Inc., all companies occupy or at one time occupied the market leader position in a specific industry or more and are also recognised as highly innovative firms, these similarities are far from coincidences, both Wal-Mart and Apple rank in at numbers 1 and 56 respectively in the Fortune 500 list and were two of the most profitable companies of the year (Fortune, 2010), also looking at the Table.1 it can clearly be seen that the companies listed are ei ther the market leaders in their industries or extremely strong and rapidly growing competitors. Innovation from all this can be said to have a positive impact on the productivity and efficiency of businesses, be it a manufacturing or service providing firm. All firms should be involved in innovative activities despite the risks involved and the high costs of investing in technology I can say that the firms that will come out on top in the race to be global leader in their respective industries are those that embrace technology and its utilize it efficiently in their activities.

Aggression Is An Instinctive Drive That People Are Born With

Aggression is verbal or physical behavior intended to cause harm. Although we may not like to admit it, we all participate in aggressive behavior at some level and at some time in our lives. Do evolutionary factors play a large role in aggression? What was Freud s theory about violence? What does more recent research say about a likely evolutionary role for violence? What does Hawley s research say about this? Aggression is an emotion Im sure that everyone has experienced in their lifetime, some more often then others. However through readings and case studies, it has been proven that males tend to be more aggressive in nature than a femle. One reason for this conclusion is do to the evolutionary perpsective. According to Baron †¦show more content†¦Thus, the fact that men are more aggressive and stronger than women can be explained through intrasexual competition (between males). Men have inherited these skills from our evolutionary ancestors, because, in general, in the living world, gaining a higher hierarchical status, resources, protecting the family and obtaining competitive advantages in conquering women involves increased physical contest and increased aggressiveness. Hawley believed that aggression shown by both sexes can serve as a social plus when it comes to high status and appeal What internal mechanisms (forms of self-regulation) are available to control aggression? Why does self-regulation sometimes fail? What does current research suggest in this regard? As stated in the opening paragraph, aggression is an emotiion that everyone experiences at some point in time. However, it is very important that we are able to stay well disciplined before we actually act on our aggressive thoughts. The internal mechanism which are known as self-regulaion or self-control often times should serve as a form of regulating our behaviors along with actions caused by aggression. It was before believed that the entire process of self-regulation required a lot of cognitive effort of the part of the the person feeling the aggression. However, we often us a demanding amount of our cognitive effort towards other task, leaving us with a depleting state of cognitive effort, which

State of Racism and Gender Discrimination Free Essays

?State of Racism and Gender Discrimination What is discrimination? Discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of a different person or groups of people based on certain characteristics. In the United States there are seven protected characteristics or classes that are defined by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Age Discrimination Employment Act, and the American Disabilities Act that can not be discriminated against: race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, and disability. This paper focuses on two of the protected classes: race and gender discrimination. We will write a custom essay sample on State of Racism and Gender Discrimination or any similar topic only for you Order Now What is racism? Racism (also known as discrimination against a race or races) is a belief that all members of one racial group have superior characteristics or abilities specific to that group; it allows the ranking of races based on superiority and implies the importance of one race over the others (â€Å"Racism† 2008). Supremacy ideology is core to racism. In the 20th century, the face of racism was largely black and white; however, in recent times there have been examples of racism against Native Americans, Asian Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans, and some other immigrant groups (â€Å"Racism in the United States† 2008). Today, racism has become multi-colored and multicultural. Racism and racial discrimination are very powerful forces which unfortunately harm the whole economy. Racism can take place in many areas such as the job market, housing market, educational system, and health care services. Even today, racial discrimination against minorities (especially African Americans) can be found in the housing market (i. e. making renting apartments, taking out mortgages, and buying houses extremely difficult or even impossible in some areas). This is not to say, that there has not been significant attempts and progress made, in order to eliminate racial discrimination. Racial discrimination and segregation used to be legal across the southern states of the United States (â€Å"Martin Luther King and the fight against racism in the US† 2008). Many people have tried to stop racial discrimination throughout the history of the United States. One extremely influential and pivotal leader that many people are familiar with is Martin Luther King. While this paper is not a historic telling of Martin Luther King, his ideals are as influential today as they were then. He did not want people to be judged by the color of their skin but by the capability of their character. He tried to revive the Civil Rights movement in the mid 1950s. However, he was tragically assassinated on the balcony of his hotel in Memphis, Tennessee (â€Å"Martin Luther King and the fight against racism in the US† 2008). After his passing and after many fundamental changes in the constitution, African American communities are no longer limited in their rights from society (â€Å"Martin Luther King Jr. † 2008). Today, the eyes of ethics and the highest laws of the land bids society to stop racial discrimination in all its forms, along with other types of discriminations defined under title VII, ADA, and ADEA. Gender or Sex Discrimination is the belief that one gender is more valuable than the other, and can also create doubts in the abilities of a certain sex and exacerbate stereotypes (â€Å"Sexism† 2008). In most countries around the world, gender discrimination is illegal in most circumstances (Manohar 2008). In the United States, Title VII protects against gender and sexual discrimination. There are two types of gender discrimination: disparate treatment and disparate impact (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). Disparate treatment is treating people differently because of his or her sex (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). The other is disparate impact, when the company policy does not include certain individuals or does not include everyone equally (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). The fire department is a good example of disparate impact. The qualifications of the fire department are extreme (i. e. he ability to carry and lift a lot of weight), which makes it hard for women to qualify for a job as a firefighter (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). These requirements are important to becoming a fire fighter and many argue that they are more than necessary. However, this does not mean that the fire department does not want to work with women. It is just the policy to set the standards high. Another interesting example: A male employee was fired by his employer because he refused to work at night (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). This company had a policy saying that women did not have to work at night because the company was located in a high crime area. The male employees had to work the night shifts for the company, while the women employees did not. The male employee in question filed a suit under Title VII against his employer claiming sexual discrimination. The company claimed that several female employees would quit if they were forced to work at night. The company also claimed the policy was a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ). This case is interesting because BFOQ can be used as a defense to allow certain discrimination. BFOQ is an exception provided by Title VII for jobs that require a specific religion, sex, national origin, or age as a reasonable necessity for normal operations of a business. Although BFOQ applies to the fire department qualifications, the courts deemed that the company who asked only its male workers to take the night-shift was could not use BFOQ as a valid defense (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). In the workplace, sexual discrimination usually involves sex becoming a factor in deciding on who gets a job, promotion, or other benefits. Many researches have shown that women are treated unfairly compared to men in hiring, promotions, and benefits (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). For instance, a young man, who dropped out from high school and does not have a degree, gets a job in a high position over a young woman who has her master’s degree. While the young woman is better qualified for the position than the young man, the man gets the job. This paradigm illustrates gender discrimination. The reverse has also held true. There have been cases where men have been discriminated against, as discussed above. There is also a particular form of sexual discrimination called sexual harassment. Sexual harassment includes inappropriate words or actions of a sexual nature to the opposite sex (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). Courts expect managers to understand that sexual discrimination may exist in the workplace and companies to take proactive measures to ensure that the environment is free from sexual discrimination. The first law of any federal importance in the United States regarding discrimination was The Civil Rights Act of 1871, also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871; it was mainly established to protect Southern African Americans from the abuse being delivered to them from the Ku Klux Klan. Although the Act had been interpreted by the courts many times, it had very little effect. For one, the Act was loosely defined and provided loopholes for state officials, who did not get litigated under the statue. However, this hole was patched up in 1961, when the Supreme Court of the United States decided Monroe v. Pape. The decision included several provisions to close the inadequacies found in the Civil Act of 1871. The Act is now one of the most powerful statues, in which the State and Federal courts may protect those whose rights are being violated. In particular, Section 1983 of the Civil Rights Act enforces the prohibition of public sector employment discrimination based on race, color, national origin, sex, and religion, but it rarely applies to the private sector. Eventually, the first Federal law to promote equal opportunity and prohibit employment discrimination in the United States was passed. The law is called the Executive Order 8802, also known as the Fair Employment Act. It was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941. The law promotes and ensures that all Federal agencies and departments involved with the defense industry were administered without discrimination to race, color, or nationality on the vocational and training programs being offered to its employees and contractors. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited racial segregation in schools, public places, and employment regardless of race, color, religion, sex, or nationality. Originally conceived to help protect African Americans, it also explicitly included sections to protect women in the bill; as a result the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was founded as well. At the time of its creation, this law was seen as one of the most important legislations that abolished all forms and respects of discrimination. During its time at the House Judiciary Committee, the bill was expanded and strengthened to include bans against racial discrimination in employment, segregation in all public facilities, and protection of the rights of black voters. The bill was later passed out to the House Rules Committee, at which the committee’s chairman Howard W. Smith expressed his intention in canning the bill. But after pressures from civil rights groups and movements, Chairman Smith finally let the bill pass through and it was brought to a vote. It passed in the House on February 10, 1964 and was sent to the Senate. During the bill’s stay at the Senate, a group of southern state Senators launched a two month filibuster trying to prevent its passage through the Senate. In compromise, a revised weaker bill than the House version was brought to the tables for Senate vote on June 10, 1964 and was passed. Originally conceived to help protect African Americans, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 also explicitly included sections to protect Women’s Rights in the bill. Added by Howard W. Smith of the House Rules Committee Chairman, it was first seen as a guise to prevent the bill from passing (since at that time it was normally conceived that some groups of men within the House and Senate would oppose Women’s Rights). The Bill was later successfully passed and marked the first time legislation was put into effect to protect women. The Civil Rights Act was later followed by the Civil Rights Act of 1968, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act of 1968; which expanded the prohibition of discrimination to include the housing sector. It specifically prohibited discrimination on the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, nationality and later gender, and the protection of families with children and of the handicapped. The next important anti-discrimination law to pass was the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978. With more than 70% of women with children in the U. S. work force, the law was setup to protect women against discrimination due to their pregnancy (or intentions of becoming pregnant). Employers with prejudices against working mothers (due to the fear of lost productivity, extra costs, expenditures and accommodations associated with pregnant women) who might have been likely to discriminate against them were deterred. The Act also enables the distribution of a monetary pay-out as a result of discrimination against pregnant women. In 2006 alone, The U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission handled 4,901 claims with monetary amount awarded totaling about $10. 4 million (EEOC 2006). The Civil Rights Act was amended again for the last time in 1991, in an effort to address various limits imposed by past United States Supreme Court’s decisions on the rights of employees who had filed law suits against their employers. It was basically setup to bring forth the emotional distress damages caused by employment discrimination while setting a limit on the amount the jury could award (â€Å"List of Anti-Discrimination Acts† 2008). Before the 1991 Act was put into effect, a plaintiff could only sue their employer for discrimination and recover lost wages or salary, lost benefits, attorney fees, court fees, other legal fees, and other costs associated with reinstatement. To prevent from unreasonable court settlements, the punitive damages awarded was capped at $300,000 for most cases (excluding ethnic and/or racial discrimination) (â€Å"List of Anti-Discrimination Acts† 2008). The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission still handles thousands of discrimination cases every year. There is statistical evidence that suggests racial discrimination in the workplace is still commonplace. In 2000, the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) reported a study in North Carolina that states accusations of racial harassment on the job nearly quadrupled between 1996 and 2000. Mindy Weinstein, attorney at the EEOC office in Charlotte, North Carolina, says, â€Å"There’s a new generation of workers today who were not raised in the civil rights movement, who may not have been aware of the laws that came about because of that time†¦ We think it’s largely a reflection of what’s going on in society as a whole† (â€Å"Racial Discrimination† 2008). Since Barack Obama’s win the 2008 presidential election, people would like to believe that racism has seen its last day; unfortunately this is not the case. According to the research of Brown University, during 1970 to 1994, when America liberalized their uncompetitive banking markets, it reduced the wage gap between blacks and whites. Economists call the wage difference between black workers and white workers the â€Å"racial wage gap† (most of which comes from bias). Gary Becker, a Nobel-prize winning economist, argued that prejudice of employees was economically inefficient. Brown University found that deregulation of the American banking industry increased competition and lowered interest rates on loans. People found it easier to start their own business. They found that in an initially high degree of racial bias, the black-white wage gap declined the most. This evidence shows competition itself can not eliminate racial discrimination. Competition can only reduce the bias from employers. Changing attitudes takes a lot of time and effort; even though Obama’s election victory denotes a change in history, there is still a long way to go (â€Å"Race and Red Tape† 2008). Wage gaps can be seen in between genders as well. Though a wage gap between white men and white women may be expected, it is surprising to see this is not the only wage gap that exits between the sexes. In other racial groups, such as African Americans, Latinos, and Asian/Pacific Islanders, men earn more money than women within their own respective race (U. S. Census Bureau 2000). According to a study, women working 41 to 44 hours per week earn 84. 6% of what men earn working similar hours; women working more than 60 hours per week earn only 78. % of what men earn working the same hours (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2002). More over, women tend to work longer before they receive promotions and get a higher pay. Most people think a higher education may increase women’s salary, but the evidence suggests otherwise. The data does not show a narrow gender gap in wages at higher levels of education. On the contrary, at the very highest levels of education, the gap is at its largest (Hilary M. Lips 2008). Racial discrimination is an important issue in the business world and is a genuine problem that still exists—and in some cases it’s getting worse. According to a study published in 1998 by the nonprofit group Catalyst called â€Å"Women of Color in Corporate Management: A Statistical Picture,† it was shown that minority women, while now accounting for almost a quarter of all women in the workplace, occupied only 15 percent of the management positions held by women. The study verifies that a combination of racial discrimination and the glass ceiling was a differentiating factor in those numbers (Racial Discrimination 2008). Glass ceiling is a symbolic phrase referring to an invisible cap preventing qualified women and minorities from progressing into key higher level management positions, or in some cases any management positions. These individuals describe the cap as a â€Å"glass ceiling† because they can see the opportunity that should be theirs through the glass, but due to the ceiling, they can not go any higher. In 1995 the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission described the American labor force as being segregated by gender and race, where â€Å"white men fill most top management positions in corporations† (Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector 2004). The report affirms that the percent of women officials and managers in the private sector used to be 29% in 1990 and had increased to 36. 4% in 2002. Although this is an improvement, women embody 48 percent of all employees, but only 36. 4% of them are in key power positions. In the National Employment Summary released in 2005 by the EEOC, the average salary reported was $40,325. This report indicates that the median income of men is above average ($44,090) and the median income of women is below average ($36,417) (â€Å"National Employment Summary† 2005). The median salary for White and Asian employees was above average as well ($41,525 and $50,762 respectively); whereas Black, Hispanic, and Native American employees had median salaries below the average income (â€Å"National Employment Summary† 2005). When graphed, these findings show that White male population has an income graph that is skewed towards the right, whereas most minorities and women have a normal income distribution. The data here supports the idea that more White men are employed in higher paying jobs. The Federal Glass Ceilings Commission argues that: â€Å"The successful elimination of glass ceilings requires not just an effective enforcement strategy but the involvement of employers, employees and others in identifying and reducing ttitudinal and other forms of organizational barriers encountered by minorities and women in advancing to higher level management positions in different workplace settings. † (Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector 2004) Racism and gender discrimination hurt not only the people discriminated against, but also the economy as a whole. It prevents good, qualified individuals from progressing and attributing to the market. As a result, l ess qualified or poorly qualified people get placed in key positions. This prevents business’ from reaching their potential, and thus prevents the nation from reaching its. These issues are not restricted to the United States. Racism can be found in all countries across the globe, and its effects can be devastating. Africa suffers from constant political unrest where attempts at genocide are commonplace. Will racism and gender discrimination ever come to an end? It is a difficult question to answer, especially since it is human nature to differentiate between â€Å"us† and â€Å"them† (â€Å"So stereotypes persist because we want them to† 2000). The hope and desire for America is that the definition of â€Å"us† truly changes to encompass all Americans (â€Å"from all walks of life†). Works Cited EEOC (U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). 2006. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. eeoc. gov/index. html Feinberg, Mark PhD. â€Å"So Stereotypes Exist Because We Want Them to†. American Psychological Association Public Interest Directorate. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. apa. org/pi/oema/racism/contents. html â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination†. 008. Retrieved November 29, from: http://www. discriminationattorney. com/lawyer-attorney-1287322. html â€Å"Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector†. 2004. U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. eeoc. gov/stats/reports/glassceiling/index. pdf Lips, Hilary M. â€Å"The Gender Wage Gap: Debunking the Rationalizationsâ € . Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. womensmedia. com/new/Lips-Hilary-gender-wage-gap. html â€Å"List of Anti-Discrimination Acts†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/List_of_anti-discrimination_acts#United_States Manohar, Uttara. â€Å"Gender Discrimination at Workplace†. October 24, 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/gender-discrimination-at-workplace. html â€Å"Martin Luther King and the fight against racism in the US†. 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from: http://www. socialistworker. co. uk/art. php? id=14531 â€Å"Martin Luther King Jr. . November 30, 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from: http://www. 123HelpMe. com/view. asp? id=42718 â€Å"National Employment Summary†. 2005. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. eeoc. gov/stats/jobpat_eeo4/2005/jobs/UnitedStatesSummary. html â€Å"Race and Red Tape†. November 13, 2008. The Economist print edition. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. economist. com/finance/displaystory. cfm? story_id=12597512 â€Å"Racial Discrimination†. November 29, 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. nswers. com/topic/racial-discrimination â€Å"Racism†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Racism â€Å"Racism in the United States†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States â€Å"Sexism†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia†. 2002. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. answers. com/topic/gender-discrimination How to cite State of Racism and Gender Discrimination, Papers

Midnight Memories by One Direction free essay sample

One Direction is one of the most famous Boy bands since â€Å"The Beatles.† The boys first audition for the X-Factor in 2011 as indivual artists. Liam Payne, Harry Styles, Zayn Malik, Naill Horan and Louis Tomlinson. Each Boy had gotten eliminated but at the last minute had gotten called back in with a few other boys. One of the judges had suggested for them to sing as a group. Overall they won 3rd Place. Midnight Memories is the boy’s 3rd album and has been 1 number 1 on the charts for about 5 months. My personal favorite song on the album is Diana. It is a song about fans that self-harm. The song is telling the fans that no matter what they love them. The track album includes: Best Song Ever, Story of My Life, Diana, Midnight Memories, You I , Dont Forget Where You Belong ,Strong , Happily , Right Now ,Little Black Dress ,Through The Dark Something Great ,Little White Lies, Better Than Words. We understand. â€Å"Right Now† is one of those semi-ballads featuring both killer guitar and emotional lyrics. Don’t worry, all you faithful pop fans, the band stays true to their pop roots with â€Å"Does He Know† and the accurately titled â€Å"Best Song Ever.† The  ­former has lyrics like â€Å"Does he know you can move it like that? Does he know you’re out and I want’cha so bad?† that really showcase the boys’ maturing themes. In classic 1D fashion, some of the songs are complete game changers. A round of applause for â€Å"Happily,† a One Direction twist on a Mumford and Sons sound. â€Å"Something Great† lives up to its name, with all-encompassing vocals and instruments that I can only describe as totally filling my soul. Yeah, I know how lame that sounds, but it’s true. Not to be forgotten, â€Å"Don’t Forget Where You Belong† is a road trip must-have. You can sing along – I won’t tell! â€Å"Midnight Memories† is a holiday must-have for 1D fans and newcomers alike. Make sure you get yours! Midnight Memories by One Direction free essay sample One Direction has a new album coming out this November.All of the Directioners (One Directions fanbases name ) are extremely excited.One Directions first album (Up All Night) has sold over 500,000 albums in just one week.In just one year the album sold over three million copies worldwide,and was numer one in 16 countries including the USA! One Directions second album (Take Me Home) sold 540,000 in the first week.Globally, Take Me Home topped the charts in more than thirty five countries! It was also the fourth best selling album of 2012, selling 4.4 million albums! They were also the first boy band in US chart history to have two number one albums in a calendar year.Live While Were Young debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.The song also sold over 341,000 downloads in the first week, and was even number one on the Digital Songs chart.Can you believe just five teenagers can accomplish this much in two years,and even steal the hearts of millions of girls just by being themselves? In my opinion I am very proud of them they are all PhenomiNiall,BrilLiam,AmaZayn,ExtrodinHarry,and FabouLouis! (As all the Directioners would say) When the third album (Midnight Memories) releases im sure it will be better than the first two albumsIf thats possible!

Presence of Erf in Arabian Sea free essay sample

â€Å"Whoever controls the Indian Ocean, dominates Asia. This Ocean is the key to seven seas. In the 21st century, the destiny of the world would be decided on its waters†[1]. Mahan Indian Ocean has played a very important role in the history as well as the fate of its littorals. Due to non-seafaring traditions of these littorals states, the Indian Ocean has always witnessed foreign invaders[2]. While in the past abundance of food along the rivers and minerals were a motivation, present day energy hungry nations has also found the region irresistible but perhaps in a different way than ancient invaders[3]. Lord George Nathaniel Curzon, viceroy of India in 1898 predicted that future great game would be played in Middle East (ME) and Central Asian Region (CAR)[4]. Countries having abundance of oil, more popularly known as black gold, exists in Arabian Sea, an indentation of Indian Ocean[5]. Many littorals are notorious for political instability and various other issues of great concern to major world powers[6]. We will write a custom essay sample on Presence of Erf in Arabian Sea or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Persian Gulf has been so dear to US that President Nixon often described it as an American lake[7]. When British forces left Gulf in 1968, a vacuum was created in understanding the political system of Gulf countries and to utilise the historical knowledge efficiently[8]. Concerned that Soviet, who already had some influence in the region, would expand their circle of influence to warm waters ports and huge oil reserves of Gulf, US accepted the fact that Gulf region must be kept friendly to west[9]. Initially even US maintained a naval presence for the purpose of flag showing only but latter unpredictable events has compelled the US to review its foreign policy in Persian Gulf. This change in policy brought about a change in US naval strategy. The implementation of Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force brought a larger naval presence into the Gulf[10]. In 1980? s, during Iran – Iraq war, US further increased its naval presence in the area to provide protection to shipping emanating from Gulf. Initially the presence only was considered enough; however, latter the US navy resorted to escorting the ships from ports all the way till out of the Strait of Hormuz. US even reflagged Kuwaiti tankers for providing them naval escorts[11]. US is very well aware of the effects any disturbance in smooth flow of oil can cause for its economy. The fact that it was oil embargo of 1940 and concern for energy security that compelled Japan to attack on pearl harbour is fresh in the memories of US[12]. The world has already witnessed three famous oil shocks, during 1970 Afghanistan invasion by USSR, 1973 Arab oil embargo and 1979/80 Iran revolution[13]. Due to convergence of interests in ensuring security of cheap and affordable oil supply from Gulf, several countries have joined hands with US. It resulted in Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan (CMCP), led by US, consisting of more than 15 countries[14]. As a result, usually more then 50 foreign naval ships are always present in the region at any given time[15]. Such overwhelming presence of US forces is seen in different perspective by regional states. The paper discusses all the facts assuming that US will maintain its presence at least in near future and will devise a mechanism for ensuring energy security for all concerned through involving regional powers. This move by US may have certain very obvious implications for other regional states as no worth while military cooperation other than GCC exists in the region. CHAPTER II STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF ARABIAN SEA Atlantic and Pacific Oceans has witnessed several very formidable military coalitions in recent past. On the other hand, Indian Ocean has not so far developed an overreaching security system that could meet the challenges of maritime security[16]. Indian Ocean is situated between Atlantic and Pacific, thus serving as a natural transit lounge for most of the traffic from and to both these Oceans. Only one fifth of the total trade is conducted among the countries of the region and while 80% of the trade is extra regional (mainly crude oil to USA, Europe, China and Japan)[17]. Arabian Sea is a northern indentation of Indian Ocean, containing few of the world? s busiest waterways for commercial exchange of capital, commodities, goods and most importantly energy resources[18]. Littorals of Arabian Sea in the Persian Gulf region are blessed with huge quantities of critical energy supplies[19]. Fig 1: Proven Crude Oil Reserves[20] Developed world economies are most vulnerable to any shortage or disruption in the smooth flow of cheap oil esulting in price fluctuation, which could have devastating effects on their economies[21]. The Persian Gulf contains more than 700 billion barrels of the proven oil reserves, which are almost over half of the proven reserves whole world. Europe imports average of 2. 6 million barrels per day while US imports another 2. 5 million barrels per day fro m the Gulf region[22]. Fig 2: Net Oil Imports From Persian Gulf as a Percentage of Total Net Oil Imports[23] Several littoral states of Arabian Sea are unstable due to religious, political and ethnic divide. Most of these are Muslim states, which are also controlling extremely sensitive choke points transited regularly by tankers carrying oil supplies. Thus adding to worries of western states regarding security of energy supplies[24]. Similarly, as demands for raw materials are growing and resources shortages are expected, the growing economies are more concerned for security of supplies through any means[25]. The Arabian Sea is also unique in another respect where it holds two neighboring nuclear states, Pakistan and India, with host of unresolved disputes between them, which has often led to wars in the past as well. On the other hand, Iran, a major regional country designated as so-called evil state by US and is in pursuit of nuclear technology with other Gulf countries having ambitions to acquire the same[26]. The region also contains elements of political, ideological, economic, religious and military based insecurity[27]. The region has in its close proximity, Afghanistan, a breeding ground for terrorist and hub of Al-Quaida activities, Central Asian Region (CAR) the future hope of energy for the world[28]. Choke Points Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea waterways are most vulnerable at three very important choke points, Strait of Hormuz, Bab al-Mandab and Suez Canal, from which almost all the oil exports passes[29]. Being sensitive to source of oil from the region, major powers in the world has to be concerned with developments taking place in the Arabian Sea[30]. About 40 percent of the worlds oil supply is transported through Hormuz alone, the only shipping channel in and out of the Persian Gulf. The strait is 17 miles wide at its most narrow point and 120 miles long. Its inbound and outbound channels are each 2 miles across. The U-shaped strait is bordered to the south by Oman, an ally of the United States, and to the north by Iran, which President Bush has included in the â€Å"axis of evil†. Fig 3: Choke Points – Arabian Sea[31] The threat from submarines and mines has long been a concern to the American Navy in this choke point. On the other hand, the Suez Canal being controlled by a single, stable nation, Egypt, whose economy depends heavily on tolls collected through canal, have strong ties to the West and is considered more secure than other choke points. By contrast, Yemen, near Bab al Mandab, has been a refuge for Al-Quaida terrorist cells and is seen as poorly equipped to guard its waterways[32]. Pakistan’s Geo-Strategic Location and SLOCs of Arabian Sea Pakistan is situated at a geographic location that can play a very important role in Arabian Sea. With Pakistan? s western sea boundaries very close to Strait of Hormuz, and SLOCs for India, Far East Asia, China and Japan passing through her EEZ, it can have considerable influence in the security of smooth flow of oil supplies from Gulf and commercial commodities to Gulf. Similarly, Pakistan is also ideally located to provide warm water access to CAR for exploiting their mineral potentials by exporting it to markets all over the world[33]. Thus can act a bridge between CAR and rest of the world[34]. Fig 4: Oil Trade Routes[35] China is also looking for exploiting the access to Gulf through Pakistan using Silk Road. Pakistan with its recent status of Major Non NATO Ally to US is also ideally situated for providing access to US in approaching CAR oil reserves through proposed oil pipe line from CAR till Arabian Sea in order to diversify sources for US oil imports and GWOT[36]. CHAPTER III INTERESTS OF LITTORAL STATES Countries with several unique problems of their own surround Arabian Sea. It is a fact that although western countries have overwhelming interest in the energy resources of the region, consisting of majority of Muslim states that don not like them[37]. Ensuring a smooth oil supply has become a matter of â€Å"national security† for western world, particularly the US[38]. In the recent past, due to US led GWOT, issues of nuclear proliferation, anti-Israel sentiments and political instability the region has gained considerable importance. Along with the interests of external stakeholders, the littoral states have interests of their own, which are quite unique in nature. The paper will only discuss the interest of major internal stakeholders. Pakistan Pakistan is major Muslim State in the region, enjoying respects of other Muslim States, as it is considered as bulwark of Islam against its worldwide enemies[39]. Pakistan also regards the Arabian Sea as increasingly central to its security, a vulnerability exposed during US Tomahawk strike on Afghanistan[40]. Oil and its by-products is perhaps the most critical strategic commodity for Pakistan? survival[41]. Thus, Pakistan? s principle interest in the region is to ensure that its trade flows uninterrupted and is free of all kind of threats. At present, a US led coalition is vigorously pursuing GWOT with a real focus on this region. Pakistan being aware of the far-reaching changes taking place in the region in its area of interest joined GWOT. Thus, in the wake of 9/11 an d given the political environment in Balouchistan, Pakistan earnestly desires to keep Makran Coast free of activities that may support terrorism[42]. Active participation by PN in CMCP is a step in that direction[43]. US led war on terrorism in Afghanistan, heavily dependent on support from Pakistan, is also causing troubles for internal stability of the country. Due to US involvement, Northern Alliance has come to power in Afghanistan, a hostile government for Pakistan[44]. India has already opened six consulates in Afghanistan. Presence of NATO on doorstep also has long-term strategic effects on Pakistan. Consequently, for the first time in history, Pakistan deployed its troops in FATA and along the border of Afghanistan[45]. A hostile government in Afghanistan expose the vulnerability of Pakistan that it has due to absence of strategic depth[46]. US have always viewed possession of nuclear weapons by Pakistan with concern. As US struggle against WMD provides a justification to US for preemptive strike, therefore, US presence in the region, so close to Pakistani borders is of considerable concern[47]. A major strength possessed by Pakistan vis-a-vis India is its geographic location in Southeast Asia, near the Persian Gulf and CAR and astride the Indian Ocean sea-lanes[48]. With the development of Gwadar port, right at the mouth of Strait of Hormuz, Pakistan is also a leading option for CAR to have access to Arabian Sea for export of their raw materials to western markets at much cheaper rates as compared to other alternatives, a key impediment to India ever attaining clear regional dominance in South Asia[49]. Fig 5: Potential Cross-Border Gas Pipelines[50] India India considers area between Malacca and Hormuz Straits as its legitimate area of interest and have ambitious plans to dominate the region[51]. Indian goal of having a three fleet blue water navy to guard its vast sea frontiers is closely matched by an ambition of having a sea based second-strike capability[52]. Most recent important steps taken by New Delhi are its increasing interest in acquiring forward bases for its navy in Indian Ocean[53]. In 1954, India transferred control of Coco Island to Burma, while recently India has not only developed Andaman and Nicobar Island but is actively collaborating with Iran to establish a port at Chahbahar[54]. India? s growing interest in the region is also security of its oil supplies. With its rapid economic boom, India is dependent on cheap oil supplies from Gulf like never before. At present India is 7th largest consumer of primary energy in the world. However, its crude production share was 60% in 1988/89, 34% in 1998/99 and will be 10% in 2030. Therefore, country? s import dependence will increase to 94% in 2030[55]. India does not consider presence of US in the region as a threat but rather a source of comfort. Especially after developing strategic ties with US, India feels that their interests in the region are common as that of US[56]. Therefore, security issues for both are also interlinked. Also, after acquiring of reckonable sea power by India, other powers now understands that trade will not cross IO against a hostile Indian Navy[57]. Iran Iran seemingly aims to contest US presence in the region. Tehran? s effort to develop nuclear deterrence points in this direction. While being the third largest oil producing country, preserving its trade security is of paramount interest to Iran. Similarly, Iran also has the desire to influence Gulf region and is developing its navy to thwart any attempts by any aggression against its interests[58]. Iran has so far witnessed strained relations with other Gulf States but is on a path of improvement[59]. Iran also ahs the desire to provide a cheap route to CAR for their exports through Arabian Sea but its attempts has so not been successful owing to US in Afghanistan[60]. By virtue of being the guardian of Strait of Hormuz, controversial presence of Iran in Abu Musa Island is of extreme strategic importance[61]. With its significant arsenal of shore launched anti ship missiles, Iran can disrupt the smooth flow of traffic in the Strait of Hormuz during a conflict with an external power, an ability amply highlighted during Iran-Iraq war[62]. However, recently, Iran has been strongly advocating regional cooperation and can act as a bridge between Gulf – Indian Ocean region and CAR[63]. Gulf States Gulf counties are of great significance in the region due to large energy reserves they possess to feed developed economies[64]. Frightened by the challenge posed by the Iranian Revolution, the six Gulf States Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the UAE decided to form Gulf Cooperation Council in May 1981, which was viewed by Iran as an antiIranian Arab club, as it was an Arab and not a cross-cultural regional entity. However, Iran avoided dealing with the GCC as an entity, preferring to ignore its existence and to treat each country separately. While Kuwait openly embraces US security assistance and presence in the region, the UAE is the most cautious in its policies towards the US and the presence of US forces in the Gulf. A major reason for this cautionary position is that the UAE is Irancentric as much as Kuwait is Iraq centric. A complicating factor is that while federal leadership of UAE view Iran as a major threat to UAE, Dubai looks at it as a major commercial customer[65]. Between 1991 and 1994, all GCC States, with the sole exception of Saudi Arabia, signed security agreements with the US. These included joint exercises, access to ports and facilities, and pre-positioning of equipment[66]. Almost entire economy of Gulf States is related to energy reserves, security of which they cannot ensure[67]. The Gulf states are primarily concerned about the security of their oil fields as they know that SLOCs will be kept open by western powers, more dominatingly US, in order to safeguard their own interest[68]. However, with changing geopolitical situation, US is no longer comfortable with its relations with Gulf States. Differences are growing between US and Saudi Arabia, a linchpin of GCC, over several issues[69]. The situation has deteriorated to a level where a top Pentagon advisory board has declared Saudi Arabia as an enemy of US[70]. Fig 6: CHAPTER IV States – Part of GCC[71] INTERESTS OF EXTRA REGIONAL STATES Extra Regional States are mainly concerned with Arabian Sea for ensuring security of their energy supplies, which in turn means, the availability of energy at all times in various forms, in sufficient quantity and at affordable process. A policy discontinuity by OPEC and long-term failure to invest in production, transportation or processing capacity may have devastating effects on energy security from the region[72]. To secure oil from Gulf, US President Regan once said, â€Å"US must maintain maritime supremacy in area†[73]. It was threat to oil supplies that resulted in creation of Rapid Development Force by US President Carter. The same was major motivation for military action against Iraq in 1991[74] The region is infested with multiple problems ranging from sectarian violence, human smuggling, terrorism and political instability. US also view the leadership of the region as â€Å"politically immature, diplomatically inexperienced and ideologically unreliable†[80]. Saudi and Gulf citizens are also very sceptical that Gulf security depends on an alliance with west that will contain Iraq and Iran as well[81]. At present Gulf region provides 1/5th of the 11 million barrels of oil to US per day. Due to depletion of oil sources outside Gulf, by 2020 OPEC share is expected to reach 60% of world share[82]. Thus increasing the dependence of US on the region even further. Therefore, US always fear that radical Muslims may stop oil supplies to â€Å"western infidels† as and when required[83]. No country can have military presence, power projection capabilities or technology as US to protect resources of energy not only from Saudi Arabia but the ME as a whole and deny hostile states the ability to attack or blackmail exporting states[84]. The importance of oil for survival of US can be gauged with the simple fact that a US 10$ rise in the prices per barrel will cause a damage amounting to US 50$ billions to its economy[85]. The US, in control of the crucial oil resources in Iraq can easily use oil as a strategic lever vis-a-vis other countries such as China, as a continuation of its â€Å"Containment Policy† of China[86]. To achieve this crucial objective, US has spent a considerable amount of money and will therefore, utilise all means to gain profits from the region. Political Interests The US is focusing on two vital interests in the Middle East; first, the security of Israel, second protection of oil supplies to western allies and US. The security of Israel is clearly demonstrated during Arab-Israel wars, where US has provided unconditional, unlimited and unjustified support for Israel, using double standards[87]. The US western allies see US with drawl, being guarantor of the safety of oil transport shipping routes, as a major risk to security of their oil supplies[88]. US military presence in the Arabian Sea in general and specifically in the Gulf also serves a number of other US strategic national security goals, which are[89]: a. The security of oil supplies and reserves that exist within the territories controlled by Arab countries in the Gulf and the transit security of these supplies through the Gulf and other sea routes that are considered to be strategic choke points, e. g. the Suez Canal. b. The post-war shaping of a US-friendly Iraq. c. The containment of the Islamic Republic of Iran, China and potential future â€Å"regime change† actions in the region of ME. d. Support to the ongoing anti-terrorism campaign in and Afghanistan including stability of regime. e. Mutual support to the expanding US strategic presence in the oil rich region of the Caspian Sea and in CAR. f. g. h. Security of Israel against any type of threat. Nuclear proliferation in the region including elimination of WMD. Human smuggling and drug trafficking. Military Interests To support the security strategy for the Gulf, configured on â€Å"forward military presence†, to deter aggression and â€Å"crises response† in case deterrence fails, the US has deployed military assets off shore and on shore in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman and the UAE[90]. In contrast to the pre-Gulf war period when forward presence was kept at low key in the form of â€Å"over the horizon† military presence in deference to the political and cultural sensitivities of the conservative Gulf States, US military presence today is far more visible, substantial and controversial[91]. A high visibility posture of US military personnel in the region is a sensitive matter to the majority conservative Muslim population. The public in Gulf, as in the rest of region, is fundamentally opposed to US policies in the region and regards them as antiMuslim[92]. US unwanted presence is also view with hostility by Afghans[93]. The present government formed under the umbrella of US is not consisting of justified representation according to population due to US interest. Now, if US leave, Afghanistan will surely face another civil war[94]. CHINA â€Å"Let china sleep, for when the dragon awakes, the world will tremble†[95]. Napoleon Bonaparte Economic Interests China? s economic development has been the top priority on Beijing? s national agenda since the late 1970s and will be the driving force behind its strategy toward the Arabian Sea in general and Persian Gulf region in particular, in the years ahead. The economic growth of the past two decades has spurred China? s growing demand for energy resources and China has emerged as a competitor to US in race for energy[96]. In 1990, China exported oil worth $2. 8 Billions to Japan and now half of China? s own oil need is met by imports from Gulf[97]. In response to dwindling domestic supply, China has turned to the Persian Gulf to satisfy the nation? s economic needs. As a result, energy security has become a central component of its national security[98]. At the same time, China? economic success has augmented its â€Å"comprehensive national power,† which in Chinese strategic thinking encompasses a broad range of economic, political, diplomatic, and military capabilities. Beijing has slowly maximized these hard-earned assets to exert its influence in the Gulf region. By 2020, China will be importing 60% oil and 30% gas from external sources making her economy severely dependant on energy supply region? s security[99]. Given Chin a? s longstanding insistence on self-reliance, the growing proportion of foreign-supplied oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, triggers acute anxieties. China feels uncomfortable as tankers bringing oil for her travel through SLOCs dominated by external forces, especially US[100]. Political Interests Following the footsteps of USA, China is also expanding its base for imports of crucial oil supplies. To counter US containment policy, China is also looking forward to diversifying its energy sources all over the world. Chinese National Petroleum Company (CNPC) was ordered by government to buy 60% shares of Kazakhstan? s 3rd largest oil field and China also wishes to have 1250 miles long pipeline for oil and gas supplies till province of Xinjiang[101]. CNCP has also spent $8 Billions in 1998/99 for having concessions in Sudan, Venezuela, Iraq and Kazakhstan[102]. Presently, China is in process of striking important deals with Middle East countries. It has already signed a â€Å"Strategic Oil Partnership† with Saudi Arabia[103]. America? s unrivalled influence and substantial military presence in the Middle East represent a two-edged sword for China? s energy security. On the one hand, China benefits from the stability that U. S. military forces bring to the region without incurring any costs. On the other hand, Beijing fears that it could be held hostage to American threats to deny China? s access to oil during confrontations with the United States over other disputes[104]. With the rise of Chinese nationalism, the notion that the supply of oil could be subject to Washington? s goodwill irritate Beijing and adds to its insecurity. However, the practicality of an oil embargo is highly questionable. Cutting off oil supplies to a major power would be politically difficult to justify to the international community[105]. China is also devising a plan to ensure its energy security for the future and reduce dependence on this volatile region. Salient of plane are[106]: a. b. c. d. Maximising the domestic output of oil and gas. Diversity of sources. Invest in overseas oil and gas companies of Asia and ME. Construct infrastructure to bring oil and gas to own markets safely. Military Interests Despite all these measures, presently China could only continue to adjust to US power projection till the time it has developed a reasonable retaliatory capability[107]. The Chinese interest in the region is also because of ever increasing influence of India in the regional affairs. The newly struck deals between US and India for future strategic partnership in the region also concerns China, having stakes in the region. The Chinese attempts to acquire bases in Indian Ocean is an indicator of the same. Pakistan is a trusted ally of China and with Gwadar port becoming a reality, China will a much direct access to Arabian Sea instead of a long sea route passing from the regions dominated by US and Indian naval presence. China is also attempting to have some share for selling its military hardware to oil rich gulf states, presently dominated by western powers. Although at present the ingress of Chinese military hardware is negligible except for Iran, the same may change in future with Chinese technology advancing at a rapid pace. EUROPE UNION Economic Interests Europe depends heavily on oil imports from the Gulf, notwithstanding its efforts to diversify sources of energy supplies from North Africa, Russia, and the Atlantic Basin[108]. Indeed, the European market consumes most of Iran? oil and gas exports, and the same will be true for Iraqi energy exports once it is able to shed sanctions that have prevented the reconstruction of its heavily damaged oil infrastructure. Moreover, European dependence on Gulf energy supplies is likely to grow substantially over the next 10 to 15 years; particularly as North Sea oil and gas resources are depleted[109]. Fig 7: Gap Between Supply and Demand of Oil[110] Clo sely related to European energy imports from the Gulf is two-way trade between Europe and the region. Presently, neither Iraq nor Iran is a lucrative market for European goods, services and capital. Also, the European Union (EU) initiative to cultivate stronger economic relations with the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states has yet to yield substantial dividends. Nonetheless, several European countries, notably the United Kingdom, France and Germany, are captivated by the long-term market potential this region[111]. In 2004 the EU exports to the GCC were around 40 billion pounds whereas its imports from the region were 25 billions pounds, thus providing a direct benefit of 15 billions pound in a single year[112]. Political Interests The United States and Europe share a number of common goals and interests in the region[113]. These include securing access to Persian Gulf oil supplies at reasonable prices; preventing the spread of terrorism and WMD; and fostering peace, stability and prosperity. Nonetheless, over the years some of the most acute tensions in the transatlantic relationship have stemmed from US and European disagreements in the Persian Gulf, especially over the most effective policies to achieve these goals[114]. The most contentious disputes have revolved around the American use of military force and the imposition of sanctions to moderate the behaviour of Iraq and Iran[115]. These differences are likely to persist, given the high stakes involved and the political, diplomatic and economic investments of both the US and Europe in the region. Military Interests European military interests in the region are mainly restricted to arms supplies. Huge European arms industry is in dire need of a lucrative market which can absorb relatively expansive European arms and that too in huge quantities. Although China is also trying to capture this market with its cheap weaponry but despite financial appeal, they do not provide level of sophistication that many Gulf States have come to expect. Pakistan has also been interested in western weapon systems since long and possesses quite a large number of sophisticated systems. Pakistan Navy in particular has been dependent upon western countries for smooth functioning of its fleet. However, due to a bitter experience after US sponsored sanctions, Pakistan Navy has also struck deals with China for surface ships and helos. More recently, India has also shifted its long-standing loyalty with Russian weapon systems and is now in active collaboration with western arms industry for several of its future projects[128]. PN and Presence of ERF in the Region Pakistan cannot afford to neglect its maritime effectiveness. For sustainable maritime growth, there is a need to address military and non-military threats to Pakistans maritime security. Present trends, changes and geopolitical situation imply that all challenges to Pakistans maritime interests should be dealt accordingly. Defending Pakistans maritime interests and safeguarding its ports and harbours have placed an enormous burden on the PN[129]. In order to meet future maritime security challenges of Pakistan the role of the PN needed to be enhanced in a way that it should be able to serve the strategy of defensive offence. Pakistan should modernise its Navy and be forward-looking in its vision. Pakistan should have a naval power commensurate with its role not only to defend its coast, but also act as a deterrent to any power intending to interfere and obstruct the flow of oil or gas or obstruct movement in the region[130]. PN will, therefore, be required to provide escorts to friendly shipping carrying strategic commodities. This primarily is defensive role but nonetheless of a strategic value for the country[131]. Compulsion of maintaining continuous presence in CMCP, essential in order to avoid over anxiety regarding ERF operations in Pakistani waters, is also taking a heavy toll on an already averaged PN fleet[132]. Therefore, Pakistan must immediately enhance PN surface fleet capabilities in order to meet the future challenges efficiently and effectively[133]. Failing to participate in CMCP and meeting the goals set by ERF in Arabian Sea in general and along the coastal belt of Pakistan in particular may compel US in inviting India for CMCP or worst case to ensure continuation of ERF agenda through its naval presence in the region. Indian Navy operating off Pakistani coast has self-evident implications for PN resulting again in maintaining a very comprehensive presence in the area in order to check Indian Naval activities[134]. Being part of an international collation and having chance to operate with modern navies is also benefiting PN in several ways. Few of the important aspects in this regard are as follows[135]: a. Intelligence sharing with US network. b. Sharing of recce/surveillance information. c. Maritime Interdiction Operations. d. Leadership Interdiction Operations against terrorist organisations. e. Doctrinal revision. f. Enhanced operational availability of PN units. g. Increased interaction with modern navies. h. Confidence to own mariners in international and Pakistani waters. j. Acknowledgement of PN professionalism. k. Material gains in the form of military support. l. Improving the image of PN w. r. its capability to ensure security in the region. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION The concept of maritime security broadly revolves around political, economic, technological, environmental and military and non-military elements. Any threat to these elements poses a threat to the maritime interests of a particular nation. This growing economic dependence on sea and benefits of EEZ requires construction of a whole new set of modern infrastructure of ports, harbours, shipbuilding, offshore platforms, and advanced naval strength, which may not be possible for a smaller nation despite having adequate finances. Security of trade is of immense value for survival of all countries in Arabian Sea region. While major countries may see presence of ERF as a hindrance to freedom of operation by their navies in their legitimate area of interest, the freedom of navigation provided by ERF presence to all friendly shipping is viewed as a very positive step by smaller regional states. While several countries in the region are opposed to US policies, it is a fact that the overwhelming majority of them also oppose terrorism and the kind of political vision and government style as proposed and practised by Bin Laden and the Taliban. For as long as Gulf oil remains vital to the interests of the US and its allies, heavy presence of ERF in the region is to be expected. Sharing major maritime oil and gas fields with littoral Gulf States means that Iran and the Arab world have potential friction points. US military presence, especially naval and air force capabilities, in several of the Gulf countries is a critical check to Iranian ambitions and possible adventurism. In other words, there is no realistic end in the foreseeable future to US military engagement in the region. The vital interest the US has in the region, the desire of Gulf States to retain US military presence and the inability of Japan and European powers that depend on ME oil to project power for a long haul means that US will be the main player providing protection to all allies in future. Dream of having a NATO type organisation to ensure security interests of member countries in the region is still a long haul dream. Awareness is growing among the regional countries regarding the importance of an organisation like an Indian Ocean Regional Forum or a „Security Alliance for the Indian Ocean?. Headway is only possible through gradual evolution of trust and confidence among the stakeholders after the internal disputes are settled. (Word Count: 6210) BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES Books Commander Manoj Gupta, Maritime Affairs: Integrated Management for India, Manas Publications, New Delhi, 2005. Dana Priest, The Mission: Waging War and Keeping the Peace With America? s Military, W. W. Norton Co, New York, NY 2004. Ian Rutladge, Addicted to Oil, I. B Tauris Co Ltd, London, 2005. References: http://www.frontline.in/ http://www.persiangulfonline.org/